THE HISTORY OF THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

Answer the following questions using the internet source: http.//www.lewisandclark.org.  The questions are arranged according to the sections in which the information is located on the web site.  Select “Lewis & Clark Expedition” and then “History of the Expedition.”

Prelude: to May 1804
Was the expedition planned before or after the purchase of Louisiana?  Why was it planned?
What qualifications did Meriwether Lewis have for his role as leader of the expedition?
What qualifications did William Clark have to assist Lewis?

The Lower Mississippi: May 14, 1804 to April 1805
What were some of the problems the expedition experienced on this portion of the journey?
While at Fort Mandan, Lewis and Clark hired Toussaint Charbonneau.  What was the greatest advantage for them by hiring him?  Explain with specific details.

The Upper Mississippi: April 1805 to July 1805
Identify and explain one challenge to the expedition as they traveled past the point where the Yellowstone and Missouri rivers joined.
*The expedition had to portage around the falls of the Missouri.  What does “portage” mean?

West of the Divide: July 1805 to November 1805
When the expedition reached a point where the Missouri divided into three forks, what did they name each fork and why did they select that name?
            Southeast Branch:
            Southerly Fork:
            Westerly Branch:
*What is the Continental Divide?
Where was Lewis and how did he know when he crossed the Continental Divide?
What did Lewis do with their canoes and why?
What challenges faced the expedition in the late fall of 1805 as they approached and reached the Pacific Ocean?
How long did it take to reach the Pacific Ocean?

On the Pacific: November 1805 to March 1806
Through the winter of 1805-1806, the expedition stayed at Fort Clatsop.  What were their activities while at the fort?  Give specific details.

The Return Journey: March 1806 to September 1806
While Lewis explored the Marias River, what were Clark and the others doing?
What tribute did Clark pay to Sacagawea and why?
What injury occurred to Lewis and why?

After September 23, 1806
After two years, four months, and nine days, the expedition reached “civilization” at which city?
What important discovery was made that helped with later westward movement?
Describe Lewis’s life after the expedition.
Describe Clark’s life after the expedition.

PERSUASIVE ESSAY

Use resources provided in class to write a persuasive essay regarding US Immigration Policy and issues related to illegal immigrants. Due dates for this assignment can be found on the calendar pages. The audience for this essay would be the readers of the Daily Herald, where your essay is intended to appear on the editorial page. Your essay needs to be four paragraphs in length and should follow the guidelines for persuasive writing.

PACKET MATERIALS

Washington as President
in class

George Washington was the first President to take office after the Constitution was ratified in 1789.  Complete the following information about his presidency:
           Years in office
            Political Affiliation
            Vice-President
One of Washington’s primary tasks was to organize the new government.  He established five Cabinet offices and appointed individuals to lead them.  Indicate each cabinet and leader:
One of the first pieces of legislation passed under Washington was the Judiciary Act of 1789.  What did it do and what were its effects?
Washington is said to have set many precedents.  What is a precedent and why was Washington able to set so many?  Give examples of precedents set by Washington.
Probably the biggest domestic problem facing the country was the economy.  Why did the United States have such a large debt?
What two steps did Alexander Hamilton think we should take to deal with our debt?
The issue of a National Bank was also a major controversy.  What view did each of the following hold on this important issue?
            HAMILTON
            JEFFERSON
Raising money was also important.  This was done in two ways – explain each.
            TARIFF
            EXCISE TAX
Washington also experienced challenges in foreign policy.  What happened in Europe on July 14, 1789 and what were the reactions to this event in the United States?
Who was “Citizen” Genet?  What was his purpose in the United States and what problems did he cause when he arrived?
Why was Chief Justice John Jay sent to England in 1794?
What did Jay’s Treatyactually do?
What was Pinckney’s Treaty and how was he able to negotiate such favorable terms?
What crisis in the West did Washington face and how was it resolved?
What important legacy and advice about foreign policy did President Washington leave?
What was Washington’s opinion regarding political parties?

For and Against the Jay Treaty
homework

Even after George Washington became President in April 1789, troubles between the Untied States and Britain continued.  The Jay Treaty, signed in 1794, prevented war between the two nations.  However, it became a rallying point of those who were not content with the new administration.  The following excerpts illustrate opposing views of the treaty by Alexander Hamilton and Robert Livingston.  Read the excerpts and answer the questions.

Alexander Hamilton:
            It was known that the resentment produced by our revolutionary war with Great Britain had never been entirely extinguished....  It was a natural consequence of this that many should be disinclined to any amicable arrangement with Great Britain.
            The treaty adjusts, in a reasonable manner, the points in controversy between the United States and Great Britian....  It makes no improper concessions to Great Britain, no sacrifices on the part of the United States....  I secures to the United States equivalents for what they grant....  It lays upon them no restrictions which are incompatible with their honor or their interests....  It contains concessions of advantages by Great Britain to the United States, which no other nation has obtained from the same power....  The interests of primary importance to our general welfare are promoted by it.

Robert Livingston:
            As every treaty is an abridgment of the natural freedom of nations, no wise state ever enters into one but with a view to remove some evil or acquire some advantage....  The British nation, in direct violation of the Treaty of Paris, refused to surrender the western posts; extended the limits of their jurisdiction; availed themselves of their situation to possess the Indian trade, and stimulated the savages to ravage our frontiers....
           By the Treaty of Paris, in 1782, they promised to evacuate with all convenient speed ... so that all that the treaty acquires with respect to posts is less than we were entitled to by the Treaty of Paris....
            But was the evacuation of the posts all we had a right to ask on that subject, if the retention of them occasioned those expensive Indian wars which have so often drained our Treasure and thinned our ranks?  If the honor of the nation has been insulted ... are we to expect no reparation for these insults?...  And what is our submission to these terms ... but the lowest political degradation?  If is it said that these were the best that could be obtained, I boldly deny the assertion.
1.  What reasons did Hamilton think prompted opposition to the Jay Treaty?
2.  According to Hamilton, what positive features does the Jay Treaty have for the United States?
3.  According to Livingston, how had Britain violated the Treaty of Paris?
4.  Why does Livingston believe that Americans have the right to ask for more than just Britain’s evacuation of its western ports?
5.  How did Livingston interpret the nature of a treaty?
6.  Much of Hamilton’s statement concerns what the Jay Treaty does NOT do.  What reasons can you suggest for this?
7.  Taking into account the general reasons Livingston gives for entering into a treaty, do you think he believed the United States was acting wisely in signing the Jay Treaty?  Give specific examples.
8.  Many Americans, including President Washington, were not happy with the Jay Treaty.  Yet it was signed and then ratified in 1795.  Why do you think government leaders must at times enter into agreements that they do not personally approve of?
9.  Can you think of any modern examples of treaties or agreements with foreign nations that we currently have that might not be exactly what our leaders would want?

Native American Policy
homework

Here you will examine George Washington’s view of what policy the new nation should follow in dealing with Native Americans.  The quotation below is taken from a letter Washington wrote in 1783.  It is about the Six Nations of New York.  Read the quotation carefully, then answer the questions that follow.
            It is my opinion, that, if the legislature of the State of New York should insist upon expelling the Six Nations, it will end in another Indian war.  I have every reason to believe from the information I have received that they will not allow their Country ... to be taken away from them without another struggle.  That they would compromise for a part of it I have very little doubt ... The same, I am sure, will hold true with respect to Virginia, or any other State, which has powerful tribes of Indians on their Frontiers.
            I am clear in my opinion, that policy and economy point very strongly to the usefulness of being upon good terms with the Indians, and the correctness of purchasing their lands instead of attempting to drive them by force of arms out of their Country.  There is nothing to be obtained by an Indian war, but the soil they live on, and this can be had by purchase at less expense.

1.  Highlight two statements that clearly show that Washington is giving his opinion and label them O.  Explain how you can tell each of the statements is an opinion.
2.  Highlight one statement of fact in Washington’s letter and label it F.  Explain how you know it is a fact.
3.  How does Washington describe the Indians on the frontier?  Is this a statement of fact or opinion?
4.  In your own words summarize Washington’s policy for dealing with the Indians.
5.  Does the letter suggest Washington was mostly interested in protecting the rights of Indians?  Explain.

Should There Be Political Parties?
homework

Today political parties play a fundamental role in national government.  In the 1790s, however, when the two-party system first emerged in national politics, many people viewed parties as an evil threat to the newly formed republican government.  They were seen as divisive forces that existed to serve the interests of their members rather than the common good.  Even party leaders had a difficult time accepting their roles as heads of strong coalitions.  After all, Hamilton, the leader of the Federalists, and Jefferson and Madison, who headed the Democratic-Republican party, had all worked together to build the new government.  Why, they wondered, were they no longer able to solve their differences through discussion and compromise?  Both Federalists and Democratic-Republicans hoped that their party would eventually bring down the opposition and again unite all Americans.  The following excerpts reflect different perspectives. 

James Madison, convinced that political parties were an inevitable part of American government, wrote this article in 1792. 
In every political society, parties are unavoidable.  A difference of interests, real or supposed, is the most natural and fruitful source of them.  The great object should be to combat the evil: (1) by establishing a political equality among all; (2) by withholding unnecessary opportunities from a few to increase the equality of property by an immoderate, and especially an unmerited accumulation of riches; (3) by the silent operation of laws, which, without violating the rights of property, reduce extreme wealth toward a state of mediocrity and raise extreme indigence [poverty] toward a state of comfort; (4) by abstaining from measures which ... favor one interest at the expense of another; (5) by making one party a check on the other....  If this is not the language of reason, it is that of republicanism.

Robert Goodloe Harper, a Federalist, defended the two-party system in Congress in 1798:
While opposite parties in the Government ... struggle for pre-eminence, they ... are like persons engaged in an exhibition before the public, who are obliged to display superior merit and superior excellence in order to gain the prize.  The public is the judge, the two parties are the combatants, and that party which possesses the power must employ it properly, must conduct the government wisely, in order to insure public approbation and retain their power.  In this contention, while the two parties draw different ways, a middle course is produced generally conformable to public good.

President George Washington cautioned against the rise of political parties in his farewell address to the nation in 1796.
I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the state, with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations.  Let me now take a more comprehensive view and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party generally...
  It serves always to distract the public councils and enfeeble the public administration.  It agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms, kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments [incites] occasionally riot and insurrection.  In opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find a facilitated access to the government itself through the channels of party passions.  Thus the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another.
   There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the administration of the government and serve to keep alive the spirit of liberty.  This within certain limits is probably true, and, in governments of a monarchical cast, patriotism may look with indulgence, if not with favor, upon the spirit of party.  But in those of the popular character, in governments purely elective, it is a spirit not to be encouraged.  From their natural tendency, it is certain there will always be enough of that spirit for every salutary purpose.  And their being constant danger of excess, the effort ought to be, by force of public opinion, to mitigate and assuage it.  A fire not to be quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into flame, lest instead of warming it should consume.  
1.  Why does Robert Goodloe Harper view the existence of political parties in a democracy as beneficial?
2.  What is President Washington’s fear regarding the rise of parties in America?
3.  How are the views expressed in the passages by James Madison and George Washington similar?  How are they different?
4.  Of the opinions expressed here, which do you think relates most to American politics today?  Why?
5.  In what ways are political parties helpful in American politics today?
6.  In what ways do political parties in American politics today limit participation and political practice?
7.  The United States has always had a two-party system, whereas many European nations have multiple parties that represent a range of political points of view.  Why do you think this is the case?  What does it tell you about American government?
8.  The Constitution set up a government framework that did not include political parties.  What if the United States decided to abolish its present parties?  What would American politics and elections be like without them?  Do you think the system could survive?

HAMILTON v. JEFFERSON: Comparing Points of View
homework

Below are statements made either by Alexander Hamilton or Thomas Jefferson.  Read each statement and the sentence below it.  Circle the words that are correct for each sentence.

1.  “The voice of the people has been said to be the voice of God; and however generally this maxim has been quoted and believed, it is not true in fact.  The people are turbulent and changing; they seldom judge or determine right.”
The author of this statement appears to (trust / distrust)people in general, and therefore the author probably is (Hamilton / Jefferson).

2.  “I own I am not a friend to a very energetic government.  It is always oppressive.”
The author of this statement(likes / dislikes) a government that is filled with dynamic activity, and therefore the author probably is (Hamilton / Jefferson).

3.  “I do not think it for the interest of the general government itself, and still less of the Union at large, that the state governments should be so little respected as they have been.”
The author of this statement believes that states should have a (larger / smaller) share of authority, and therefore the author probably is (Hamilton / Jefferson).

4.  “If all the public creditors receive their dues from one source, distributed with an equal hand, their interest will be the same.  And, having the same interests, they will unite in support of the fiscal arrangements of the government.”
The author of this statement is concerned with thesupport of thenation’s(agriculturalists / investors), andthereforetheauthorprobably is (Hamilton / Jefferson).

5.  “Constitutions should consist only of general provisions; the reason is they must necessarily be permanent, and that they cannot calculate for the possible change of things.”
The author of this statement favors a constitution that lendsitself to (strict / loose) interpretation, and therefore the authorprobably is (Hamilton / Jefferson).

6.  “I have great confidence in the common sense of mankind in general.”
The author of this statement respects the judgement of (well-bornpeople / ordinary folk), and therefore the author probably is (Hamilton / Jefferson).

7. “The incorporation of a bank, and the powers assumed by this bill, have not, in my opinion, been delegated to the United States by the Constitution.”
The author of this statement considers a national bank tobe(constitutional / unconstitutional), and therefore the author probably is (Hamilton / Jefferson).

8.  “The powers contained in the constitution of government, especially those which concern the general administration of the affairs of a country, its finances, trade, defense, etc., ought ot be construed liberally in advancement of the public good.”
The author of this statement wants to promote the operation of the (central government / local governments), andthereforetheauthorprobably is (Hamilton / Jefferson).

Adams as President
in class

John Adams was the second President of the United States.  Complete the following information about his presidency:
            Years in office
            Political Affiliation
            Vice-President
Two major events dominated his presidency.  The first was the XYZ Affair, which was actually a problem created when Washington was President.  What happened during Washington’s Presidency that made France angry?
Who was in charge of the French government at this time?
What actions did they take that caused problems for President Adams?
What two major things did President Adams do in response?
What French actions became known as the XYZ Affair?
Describe the response in the United States to the XYZ Affair.
What specific actions did Congress take in response to the XYZ Affair?
What were our relations with France from 1798-1800?
How was the tense situation resolved?
In 1798, when anger against the French had become the most violent, the Federalists took advantage of the situation and passed a series of laws to suppress Democratic-Republican opposition and insure power for their own party.  They misjudged the temper of the nation and these oppressive measures helped bring about the downfall of the Federalist party.  These measures included three laws that became known as the Alien and Sedition Acts. Describe each:
Naturalization Act
Alien Act
Sedition Act
The response to the Alien and Sedition Acts seemed to be greatest in the southern states.  Action was taken by the state legislatures in Virginia and Kentucky.  Describe each of these measures which were collectively referred to as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions.
Virginia Resolutions
Kentucky Resolutions

Jefferson as President
in class

Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States.  Complete the following information about his presidency:
            Years in office
            Political Affiliation
            Vice-President
Jefferson’s election was different from the elections of Washington and Adams.  Explain.
Jefferson’s selected two important members of his cabinet.  Who served in each position?
            Secretary of State
            Secretary of Treasury
Jefferson’s political philosophy rested on the theory of Laissez Faire.  What does this mean and how did Jefferson apply it?
What impact did Jefferson’s Presidency have on the our military strength?  Be specific.
Jefferson didn’t want to punish the Federalists for their beliefs, but he did want to change some of the policies that they enacted.  Give five specific actions Jefferson took in this effort.
Despite Jefferson’s differences of opinion with Hamilton, he continued two Hamilton programs that he initially opposed what were they?
During Adams’s Lame Duck period, he took several steps to strengthen the Federalist party.  The most significant was increasing the number of federal judges and hastily appointing them.  What actions were taken when Jefferson took office to stop this court “packing”?
The size of the United States doubled under Jefferson.  Provide information for the following issues related to the Louisiana Purchase:
            Original Goal:
            Reasons France had to sell all of Louisiana:
            Final cost to United States:
            Constitutional authority to purchase:
Jefferson authorized two major explorations of western land.  Give basic details and significant contributions for each expedition:
            Lewis & Clark:
            Pike:
Jefferson was faced with two major challenges in foreign policy.  The first was the War with Tripoli.  Give basic details related to this war:
            Causes
            Stephen Decatur and the Philadelphia
            African campaign to Tripoli - Victory
The other issue of foreign affairs came when war again broke out between France and Britain in 1803.  How did each side violate the United States’s freedom of the seas?
Jefferson’s response was the Embargo Act.  Give details of this act and the effect it had.

To Purchase ... or Not to Purchase: The Louisiana Question
homework

As President, Thomas Jefferson tried to adhere strictly to the Republican principles he had long championed.  At times, however, he was forced to compromise his beliefs.  Some of Jefferson’s concerns about purchasing the Louisiana Territory are highlighted in the following excerpt from his Third Annual Message to Congress on October 17, 1803.  Read the excerpts below.
            Congress witnessed at their late session the extraordinary agitation produced in the public mind by the suspension of our right of deposit at the port of New Orleans....  We had not been unaware of the danger to which our peace would be perpetually exposed whilst so important a key to the commerce of the Western country remained under foreign power....  Propositions had therefore been authorized for obtaining on fair conditions the sovereignty of New Orleans ... and the provisional appropriation of $2,000,000 ... was considered as conveying the sanction of Congress to the acquisition proposed....
            Whilst the property and sovereignty of the Mississippi and its waters secure an independent outlet for the produce of the Western States and an uncontrolled navigation through their whole course, free from collision with other powers and the dangers to our peace from that source, the fertility of the country, its climate and extent, promise in due season important aids to our Treasury, and ample provision for our posterity, and a wide spread for the blessings of freedom and equal laws.
            Should the acquisition of Louisiana be constitutionally confirmed and carried into effect, a sum of nearly $13,000,000 will then be added to our public debt....  I cannot but hope that Congress in reviewing their resources will find means to meet the intermediate interest of this additional debt without recurring to new taxes....

Although Jefferson had doubled the size of the country with the purchase of Louisiana, the Federalists opposed him, and sought to defeat the treaty in the Senate, which had to give its approval (and did).  Senator Samuel White of Delaware, a Federalists, made the remarks that follow.  After you have read them and Jefferson’s address, answer the questions on the next page.
            Admitting then, Mr. President, that His Majesty (the King of Spain) is hostile to the cession of this territory to the United States, what reasons have we to suppose that if the Spaniards should interfere, the French Commissioner can give to us peaceable possession of the country?  He does not have a single soldier to enforce his orders.  I wish not to be understood as predicting that the French not cede to us the actual and quiet possession of the territory, I hope to God they may, for possession of it we must have; I mean of New Orleans, and of such positions on the Mississippi as may be necessary to secure to us forever the complete and uninterrupted navigation of that river.
            This I have ever been in favor of; I think it essential to the peace of the Unites States and to the prosperity of our western country.  But as to Louisiana, this new, unbounded world, if it should ever be incorporated into this Union, which I have no idea can be done but by altering the Constitution, I believe it will be the greatest curse that could at present befall us; it may be productive of innumerable evils.  Gentlemen on all sides agree that the settlement of this country will be highly injurious and dangerous to the United States.  As to removing the Creeks and other nations of Indians from the eastern to the western banks of the Mississippi, and of making the fertile regions of Louisiana a howling wilderness, never to be trodden by the foot of man, it is impracticable.
            You had as well pretend to inhibit the fish from swimming in the sea as to prevent the population of that country after its sovereignty shall become ours.  To every man acquainted with the adventurous, roving, and enterprising temper of our people, and wiht the manner in which our western country has been settled, such an idea must be unrealistic.  The inducements will be so strong that it will be impossible to restrain our people from crossing the river.  Our citizens will be removed to the immense distance of 2,000 or 3,000 miles from the capital of the Union, where they will scarcely ever feel the rays of the general government; their affections will become alienated; they will gradually begin to view us as strangers; they will form other commercial connections, and our interests will become distinct.  We do have already territory enough, and $15 million was a most enormous sum to give.
Use the speeches to Congress by President Jefferson and Senator White to answer the following:
1.  Give four advantages that President Jefferson felt the Louisiana Purchase would bring to the United States:
2.  Why do you think Jefferson makes a point of saying that “the provisional appropriation of $2,000,000 ... was considered as conveying the sanction of Congress to the acquisition proposed.”?
3.  Jefferson’s interpretation of the Constitution was based on his belief in states’ rights and limited government.  How, if at all, did this position conflict with his support of the Louisiana Purchase?
4.  What are Senator Whites major arguments against the Louisiana Purchase?  Which is the strongest and weakest?
5.  What point is the Senator making in his reference to the Constitution?
6.  Evaluate the Senator’s predictions.  Which were fulfilled?  Which were unfulfilled?
7.  In what way is Senator White’s comment on proximity ironic today?
8.  How would you answer the argument that although we should have New Orleans and positions on the Mississippi, we should not have the whole Louisiana Territory?

Madison as President
in class

James Madison was the fourth President of the United States.  Complete the following  information about his presidency:
            Years in office
            Political Affiliation
            Vice-President
Madison took office as President to be immediately confronted with threats from the east and the west.  Although Madison’s goal was to avoid war on both fronts, problems had already escalated too far.  Three days before he took office, Congress replaced the Embargo Act with the Non-Intercourse Act.  Explain the difference and the new effects:
Madison was indecisive in his leadership as the Non-Intercourse Act was due to expire in 1810, so Congress established its own policy with Macon’s Bill No. 2.  Explain the details.
Explain the problems with Native Americans on the western frontier:
These were the circumstances when Madison was pressured by the War Hawks.  Give the following information about the War Hawks:
            Region represented:
            Four reasons for war with Britain:
            Leaders:
President Madison finally gave into pressure and asked Congress for a declaration of war in June of 1812.  What was the reaction / vote in each House?

The War of 1812
in class

Based on the information in your text, answer the following questions:
1.  Why was western Canada important to American leaders?
2.  What was the significance of the Battle of Tippecanoe?  Why is it included as part of the War of 1812?
3.  Why was the Battle of Lake Erie significant?
4.  Why did British forces land at New Orleans?  Did they achieve their goal?  Why or why not?
5.  Why was the Battle of New Orleans significant?
6.  Why was the Battle of New Orleans ironic?
7.  How was the War of 1812 officially concluded?  Give specific details.
Identify the following and explain their significance with regards to the War of 1812:
Impressment
Tecumseh and the Prophet
Stephen Decatur
Andrew Jackson
White House
Uncle Sam
Star Spangled Banner

OLD IRONSIDES
by: Oliver Wendell Holmes
homework

                                      Ay, tear her tattered ensign down!

                                     Long has it waved on high,

                                    And many an eye has danced to see

                                     That banner in the sky;

                                    Beneath it rung the battle shout,

                                     And burst the cannon's roar;--

                                    The meteor of the ocean air

                                     Shall sweep the clouds no more.

                                    Her deck, once red with heroes' blood,

                                     Where knelt the vanquished foe,

                                    Where winds were hurrying o'er the flood,

                                     And waves were white below,

                                    No more shall feel the victor's tread,

                                     Or know the conquered knee;--

                                    The harpies of the shore shall pluck

                                     The eagle of the sea!

                                    Oh, better that her shattered hulk

                                     Should sink beneath the wave;

                                    Her thunders shook the mighty deep,

                                     And there should be her grave;

              Nail to the mast her holy flag,

                                     Set every threadbare sail,

                                    And give her to the god of storms,

                                     The lightning and the gale!                      

1.  What role did the Constitution play in the War of 1812?
2.  How does the author of this poem feel about the ship?
3.  This poem was written when the author heard that it was to be demolished.  What does the author think should happen to the ship instead of demolishing it?  Be specific.
4.  What do you think happened as a result of this poem?  Explain

American Spelling
homework
  

          Noah Webster, a teacher from Goshen, New York, wrote a book that became a bestseller in 1783.  The book was not an adventure story or a biography of a famous person.  It was an elementary spelling book.  Webster later published other books on what he considered to be a new American language. 
          By 1783, there were many versions of English spoken by Americans.  Local pronunciations and common words varied from region to region.  Noah Webster feared that the presence of many types of English might divide the new United States.  He dedicated himself to promoting a simplified, standard form of English. 

            Webster went to work on English spelling.  He thought that borrowing from other languages had turned English spelling into a senseless hash.  Letters sometimes seemed to have been tossed into words by chance.  Many letters were not pronounced the way they looked.  Others were not pronounced at all.  To improve this situation, Webster published his speller.  In it, he introduced simplified English spellings that we still use today.
The little blue-backed speller contained 144 pages and cost seven pence.  It contained religious verses and proverbs, such as, “He who lies down with dogs must rise up with fleas.”  Webster put numbers over vowels.  The numbers indicated how the words should be pronounced.  For example, the short vowel sound of e in bet was marked with a 2.  The long e in beet was marked with a 1.
           Webster had strong opinions on how words should be pronounced.  He believed that words spelled in a similar way should be pronounced in a similar way.  For example, he said that the word deaf should be pronounced “deef,” because it was spelled the same way as leaf.
            Over the next fifty years, Webster’s speller sold more than sixty million copies.  In 1784, Webster published another important work, The American Dictionary of the English Language.  “A national language,” he wrote, “is a band of national union.  Every [means] should be employed to render the people of this country national ... and to inspire them with the pride of national character.”
1.  Why did Webster work for a simplified, standard American English?
2.  What conclusion could you draw from the fact that Webster’s speller was a bestseller?
3.  Give an example from usage today of words that are spelled in a similar manner but are pronounced differently (like deaf and leaf).
4.  Give an example from usage today of words that are spelled exactly the same but are pronounced differently.
5.  Do you think Webster was correct to believe that a nation of people will be more unified if they have a common language?  Why?
6.  How does the challenge we currently face of immigrants and rising numbers of Spanish-speaking people in the United States affect our unity?  Are there both positive and negative aspects of this diversity?  Explain.

The Marshall Court
in class
body paragraph as homework

Give the basic issues, the decision, and the significance / effects for each of these major decisions cases from the Marshall Court:
United States v. Aaron Burr
Marbury v. Madison
Dartmouth College
McCulloch v. Maryland
Gibbons v. Ogden
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote that “...if American law were to be represented by a single figure, skeptic and worshiper alike would agree without dispute that the figure could be but one alone, and that one John Marshall.”  Chief Justice Burger has said that “…when we speak of ‘The Great Chief Justice’ we mean Marshall.”  Based on the information in your text and individual research, explain the significance of Marshall’s influence on our country in a body paragraph.  Use an additional sheet of paper.   Use the following as your topic sentence: 

            John Marshall is deserving of the title “The Great Chief Justice.”